Upward Representation Bias: How Voters Sustain Political Inequality

Abstract

Inequality in representation is linked to inequality in participation, where social groups withlow turnout levels in elections tend to be underrepresented in decision-making bodies. Equality in participation has thus rightfully been identified as a pivotal concern in order to achieveequality in representation. We show here, however, that equal participation is an insufficient condition due to what we label as the upward representation bias. Citizens of lower socio-economic status tend to want politicians with higher socio-economic status even if they know their political views will be less represented. We demonstrate this phenomenon using a candidate choice experiment fielded in probability-based surveys in France, Germany, Iceland, The Netherlands, Norway, and Sweden (N=17,964). These types of voter biases reinforce existing inequalities even under equal participation.